UPSC Mains 2021 Sociology Paper - I
Section A
Q1(a) Europe was the first and the only place where modernity emerged. Comment. (150 words)
Modernity means a new kind of society where people think using reason, believe in progress, and rely less on religion or tradition to guide their lives. This kind of change first appeared clearly in Europe. During the Enlightenment, European thinkers began to question old religious authority and focus on science and human reason. The Industrial Revolution changed how people worked, as machines replaced handwork and new cities grew. The French Revolution also changed politics by bringing in ideas of equality and democracy. Thinkers like Auguste Comte and Karl Marx said that these events marked the birth of a modern society.
But later scholars disagreed that only Europe became modern. For example, in India, reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy mixed modern education and science with Indian traditions during British rule. Shmuel Eisenstadt’s idea of “multiple modernities” explains that every region built its own version of modern life, shaped by its own culture and history.
Q1(b) Do you think ethnomethodology helps us in getting reliable and valid data? Justify your answer. (150 words)
Ethnomethodology, started by Harold Garfinkel, studies how ordinary people make sense of their daily lives. It looks at small, everyday actions — like how people talk, behave, or follow social rules — to understand how society stays organized. Instead of using numbers or surveys, it focuses on careful observation and detailed description of real situations. For example, by studying how judges, lawyers, and witnesses talk in a courtroom, we can see how power and order are maintained in practice.
Because this method studies people’s real behavior closely, it gives deep and truthful insights about how social life actually works. However, it is hard to repeat such studies or apply them to large groups, since social situations are different each time and are subjective. Critics say it describes too much and explains too little. So, while ethnomethodology may not give data that is always “reliable” or “general,” it gives very rich and realistic understanding of social life.
Q1(c) Discuss the challenges involved in collecting data through census method. (150 words)
A census tries to count every person in a country, but it faces many practical and social problems.
First, some groups like tribal communities, homeless people, and migrant workers are often missed because they are hard to reach or do not trust government officials. This leads to undercounting.
Second, mistakes happen when people give wrong information or when enumerators make errors while recording data. In a diverse country like India, differences in language and culture make this even harder.
Third, topics such as religion or caste can be sensitive. People may hide information or officials may avoid asking such questions properly.
Fourth, technical and social problems — like poor internet access, low digital literacy, or fear of privacy loss — also create obstacles, especially in online census efforts.
Lastly, since the census happens only once in ten years, it cannot quickly capture social and economic changes.
Q1(d) Explain whether Durkheim’s theory of Division of Labour is relevant in the present day context. (150 words)
Émile Durkheim explained that as societies grow and become more complex, work gets divided into many specialized roles. In traditional societies, people were similar and shared common values — he called this mechanical solidarity. In modern societies, people do very different jobs but depend on each other — this is organic solidarity.
This idea still fits today. Modern economies, from hospitals to software companies, rely on many specialized workers whose cooperation keeps the system running. For example, in a hospital, doctors, nurses, lab technicians, and managers all perform different tasks, yet depend on one another.
However, Durkheim’s belief that specialization always increases social unity is questioned today. In gig work or contract jobs, people often feel isolated and insecure. This weakens the sense of belonging. Still, Durkheim’s warning about anomie—a state of normlessness—remains relevant in today’s world of rapid technological change and weakening community ties.
Q1(e) Critically examine Max Weber’s theory of Social Stratification. (150 words)
Max Weber explained that inequality in society is not caused by money alone, as Karl Marx believed. He said there are three main sources of inequality — class, status, and party.
Class refers to economic position, such as being rich or poor.
Status means the respect or social honor a person gets, which may not depend on money.
Party refers to political power or influence.
For example, in India, a person from a high caste may have social respect (status) even if they are not rich. A Dalit entrepreneur, despite earning well, might still face discrimination. Weber called this status group closure, where certain groups protect their privileges.
Critics say Weber’s approach is less focused on how inequality is produced or challenged. Yet, his model helps us understand societies like India, where power, wealth, and respect do not always go together but still shape life chances.
Q2(a) From the viewpoint of growing importance of multidisciplinarity, how do you relate sociology to other social sciences?
Modern problems such as unemployment, poverty, climate change, or digital inequality cannot be solved through one subject alone. They involve people, institutions, and systems. Sociology, which studies human relationships and social behavior, connects naturally with other social sciences to explain these problems in a complete way.
With economics, sociology studies how social factors shape economic actions. For instance, economists focus on income and production, while sociologists study how class, gender, or caste affect people’s ability to earn. Amartya Sen’s “capability approach” joins both views — it measures not just income but what people can actually do with their resources, showing how freedom and inequality are shaped by society.
With political science, sociology helps explain how power and authority work in real life. Caste-based voting in India cannot be understood through politics alone; it also needs a sociological look at group identity and social status. Max Weber’s ideas on authority and Gramsci’s concept of hegemony combine both perspectives.
With psychology, sociology studies how individuals behave within groups. Social psychology links the two — for example, research on peer pressure or conformity shows how social expectations influence personal actions.
Anthropology is closest to sociology. Both use fieldwork to study culture and everyday life. M.N. Srinivas’s village studies in India used anthropological observation to test sociological ideas about caste and change.
History also supports sociology by showing how past events shape the present. Karl Marx’s historical materialism and Weber’s Protestant ethic both prove that understanding social change requires a historical view.
Thus, multidisciplinarity allows sociology to work with other fields to study complex issues like urban growth, gender inequality, or environmental justice in a complete and realistic way.
Q2(b) How far are sociologists justified in using positivist approach to understand social reality? Explain with suitable illustrations.
The positivist approach, developed by Auguste Comte, argues that social life can be studied using the same methods as the natural sciences. It believes that society has observable patterns, which can be measured, tested, and explained through evidence. Sociologists use this approach to bring clarity, order, and prediction to social research.
Emile Durkheim’s famous study Suicide is a clear example. He collected data from many countries and showed that suicide rates differ according to levels of social integration and regulation. This proved that even a personal act like suicide has social causes. Similarly, modern surveys such as the Census or National Family Health Survey (NFHS) use quantitative methods to understand fertility, mortality, or literacy. These findings help governments design better welfare and employment policies.
However, many sociologists argue that positivism has limits. Society is not like chemistry or physics; it involves feelings, meanings, and human choices. Max Weber introduced the idea of Verstehen, meaning “understanding from within.” For instance, statistics on farmer suicides show numbers, but not the despair, humiliation, or debt pressures behind them. Phenomenologists and ethnomethodologists also remind us that social life must be interpreted through people’s lived experiences.
Therefore, modern sociologists often combine both approaches. This is called the mixed-methods approach. It uses surveys and statistics to find patterns and also uses interviews or case studies to understand meanings. For example, to study caste discrimination, numbers can show how often it happens, but personal stories explain how it feels.
In short, positivism gives sociology a scientific base, but human behavior cannot be understood through numbers alone. Using both scientific and interpretive methods together gives a truer picture of social reality.
Q2(c) How is sociology related to common sense? (150 words)
Both sociology and common sense try to explain how people behave in society, but they differ in how they reach conclusions. Common sense is built from personal experience, customs, and beliefs. People often accept it because it feels natural or obvious, but it is rarely tested. For example, someone may say, “The poor are poor because they don’t work hard.” This sounds reasonable but ignores larger social and economic causes.
Sociology, in contrast, studies such issues systematically. It looks for evidence and connects personal problems to wider structures. For instance, it may show that poverty is linked to lack of education, discrimination, or unequal access to jobs. Emile Durkheim said that sociologists should study “social facts” — things like laws, customs, and institutions — in an objective way, without bias. Peter Berger added that sociology “debunks” common sense by uncovering hidden forces behind daily life. Thus, while both begin with everyday experiences, sociology turns them into careful, verified understanding.
Q3(a) How do qualitative and quantitative methods supplement each other in sociological enquiry?
Sociology uses two main ways to study society: quantitative methods that use numbers and statistics, and qualitative methods that focus on experiences, meanings, and stories. Each gives a different kind of understanding, and when used together, they make the study of society deeper and more accurate.
Quantitative methods—like surveys, questionnaires, or statistical studies—help find large-scale patterns. For example, a national survey might show that 70% of rural women do not know about government health schemes. This tells us how widespread the issue is but not why it exists.
Qualitative methods—like interviews, observation, or case studies—fill that gap. By talking to rural women, researchers may discover that local customs restrict discussion of reproductive health, or that male officials avoid awareness campaigns. This explains the “why” behind the numbers.
When both approaches are combined, they strengthen each other. In studying caste discrimination in schools, quantitative data may show that dropout rates among Dalit students are higher, while qualitative interviews reveal that daily humiliation from teachers causes these dropouts. Max Weber’s concept of Verstehen (understanding meaning) supports qualitative methods, while Emile Durkheim’s study of Suicide demonstrates the power of statistics to find social patterns.
Modern sociological studies often use mixed methods. The Sachar Committee Report on Indian Muslims, for instance, combined census data with interviews to study economic and social disadvantage.
Quantitative research ensures reliability and generalization, while qualitative research brings context and emotional depth. Using only one can lead to an incomplete picture. Together, they form a triangulated approach—each method testing and enriching the other.
Thus, sociology achieves both breadth and depth: numbers show how widely something happens, and stories explain why it happens. This balance makes sociological inquiry both scientific and humane.
Q3(b) Critically examine the dialectics involved in each mode of production as propounded by Karl Marx.
Karl Marx’s theory of historical materialism explains how societies change through conflict between the forces of production (tools, labor, technology) and the relations of production (ownership and control). Each stage, or mode of production, contains internal contradictions—called dialectics—that eventually cause its collapse and the rise of a new system.
Primitive Communism:
In early human societies, people shared property and worked together. There were no rich or poor. Over time, improved tools created surplus goods. Once surplus appeared, private ownership and inequality emerged, planting the first seeds of class conflict.
Slavery:
In this stage, masters owned both the land and the slaves. The contradiction lay in the slaves’ resistance and lack of motivation. Because they had no personal gain, productivity remained low. Rebellions and inefficiency weakened slavery, leading to feudalism.
Feudalism:
Lords owned land while serfs worked on it. Serfs were not slaves but were bound to the land. As trade and towns grew, new merchants and craftsmen—the bourgeoisie—challenged feudal control. Their rise led to capitalism.
Capitalism:
Here, capitalists own factories and workers sell their labor. The main contradiction is between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Workers produce wealth but receive only a small share, while owners take the profit, or surplus value. Repeated crises like overproduction and worker exploitation make capitalism unstable.
Socialism/Communism:
Marx predicted that workers would overthrow capitalism and create a classless society with shared ownership. He believed this would resolve earlier conflicts. Critics later argued that real socialist states faced new problems like bureaucracy and inequality, making his vision idealistic.
Despite limitations, Marx’s dialectical model clearly shows how internal tensions drive social change. Later thinkers like Antonio Gramsci expanded it by adding the role of culture and ideology. Even today, Marx’s framework helps explain how economic power shapes societies across history.
Q3(c) Do you agree with Max Weber’s idea that bureaucracy has the potential to become an iron cage? Justify your answer. (150 words)
Max Weber believed that bureaucracy — a system where work is done through fixed rules and offices — can become an “iron cage.” He meant that people could get trapped in paperwork, losing freedom and feeling like small parts of a big machine. This happens when following rules becomes more important than helping people.
We can see this in India’s offices. For example, under MNREGA, people sometimes wait months for wages because officials stick too strictly to procedures. During the COVID-19 lockdown, many migrant workers could not get food or help because of complicated forms and registration rules. In today’s digital systems, Aadhaar-linked services make work faster but can leave out those who do not know how to use technology.
However, new efforts like Mission Karmayogi and citizen charters try to make officials more humane and responsive. So, Weber’s warning is still true, but reforms can make bureaucracy more caring and flexible.
Q4(a) Explain the concept of social mobility. Describe with suitable illustrations how education and social mobility are related to each other.
Social mobility means the movement of people or groups from one position in society to another. It can be vertical (moving up or down in class or status), horizontal (moving to a similar position, like changing jobs of the same rank), intergenerational (movement between generations), or intragenerational (movement during one’s lifetime). It reflects how open or closed a society is and how far people can rise through effort rather than birth.
Education is one of the most powerful tools that promote mobility. It allows people from lower or marginalized backgrounds to achieve higher jobs, income, and social respect. For example, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, born in a Dalit family, used education to become one of India’s leading scholars and political reformers, breaking barriers of caste and class.
In India, government programs like the Right to Education Act (RTE), Mid-Day Meal Scheme, and scholarships for SC, ST, and OBC students help make education more inclusive. When children from rural or poor families reach institutions like IITs or IIMs, they often achieve intergenerational mobility, improving their family’s long-term status.
Yet, inequalities persist. Caste and class still shape who gets quality education. English-medium schools, elite coaching centers, and the digital divide during COVID-19 made these inequalities sharper. Students from poorer households often lack internet access or devices, reducing their chances of progress.
Thus, while education can change lives and bridge gaps, its power depends on how equally it is available. Only when access and quality are fair can education truly drive upward social mobility.
Q4(b) How has the idea of ‘Work From Home’ forced us to redefine the formal and informal organisation of work?
The rise of Work From Home (WFH) after the COVID-19 pandemic has transformed how we understand formal and informal work. Traditionally, formal work meant structured offices, fixed hours, and clear authority, while informal work meant home-based, flexible, or unregulated labor without job security. WFH has blurred this line.
Change in formal work:
Earlier, formal organizations depended on centralized offices and face-to-face supervision. WFH decentralized this system. Meetings now happen on Zoom or Microsoft Teams, tasks are tracked through tools like Trello or Slack, and success is measured by results, not attendance. This reduces rigid control and hierarchy, challenging Max Weber’s idea of bureaucracy based on fixed rules and close supervision. Managers now focus on trust and communication instead of constant monitoring.
Overlap with informal work:
WFH resembles informal home-based work in many ways. The boundaries between home and office have blurred—people often work longer hours, share space with family, and face distractions. For many women, this has increased the double burden of paid work and unpaid domestic care, similar to challenges in the informal care economy. Freelancers, consultants, and gig workers have also grown under this new model, showing how the digital economy mixes formal and informal elements.
New workplace culture:
Without physical offices, informal networks—like friendly chats or quick exchanges—now happen virtually. Digital “watercooler” sessions and online team activities help maintain social connection.
Challenges:
This flexibility brings fatigue, digital stress, and privacy issues due to constant online monitoring. Many without internet access or digital skills are left behind, showing new forms of exclusion.
Thus, WFH has created a hybrid world of work—less rigid and more flexible, but also more unequal. It forces us to rethink work as both organized and personal, structured yet adaptable.
Q4(c) With suitable examples, explain how conformity and deviance coexist in a society as propounded by R.K. Merton. (150 words)
R.K. Merton’s strain theory explains why some people follow social rules while others break them. Society teaches everyone to aim for certain goals, like success or wealth, and also provides accepted ways to reach them, like studying or working hard. But not everyone gets equal chances. When people feel pressure between their goals and their real opportunities, they respond in different ways.
Merton described five responses. Conformists follow both goals and rules — for example, students who study honestly for good jobs. Innovators accept the goal but use illegal ways, like scam callers or corrupt traders trying to earn fast money. Ritualists follow rules without caring about success, such as clerks obsessed with paperwork. Retreatists give up both goals and rules, like drug addicts or monks who withdraw from society. Rebels, such as Bhagat Singh, reject old systems and try to build new ones. Thus, both rule-following and rule-breaking come from the same social pressures.
Section-B
Q5(a) Explain the emerging challenges in establishing gender equality in the informal sector. (150 words)
In India, most workers earn their living in the informal sector—street vending, domestic work, home-based craft, or daily wage jobs. Women form a large share of this workforce but face deep inequality. They are often paid less than men and rarely have written contracts, maternity leave, or childcare support. Because such workplaces are informal and scattered, the POSH Act (2013) against sexual harassment is hard to enforce.
Many women’s jobs—like cooking for families or caring for children—remain unpaid or invisible. Poor and Dalit women usually face double disadvantage, as both gender and caste limit their options. New digital platforms have opened small business opportunities, yet many women are left out due to lack of smartphones/internet or the ability to utilize them.
Government programs such as PM SVANidhi and DAY-NULM try to help women start small ventures, but their reach is narrow. Real progress needs more than laws—it needs public awareness, safety, training, and shared household responsibilities.
Q5(b) Critically examine the relevance of Vilfredo Pareto’s theory of Circulation of Elites in the present scenario. (150 words)
Vilfredo Pareto said that power in society keeps changing hands between two kinds of elites. The “lions” use strength and authority, while the “foxes” rely on cleverness and negotiation. When one type weakens, the other rises, keeping society stable.
In today’s democracies, the theory still fits in some ways. In India, political families, senior bureaucrats, and corporate boards often pass power within their own circles. Instead of true rotation, the same groups stay powerful. Still, new forms of leadership—grass-roots politicians, start-up founders, and online influencers—show partial change. Yet many of these new elites continue the same class and caste dominance; they appear new but carry old privilege.
Pareto’s idea helps explain how elites protect their power, but it misses larger forces like democracy, caste, or public movements. His view is useful to study elite behavior, but it cannot fully explain modern struggles for equality and representation.
Q5(c) Critically compare the views of E.B. Tylor and Max Muller on Religion. (150 words)
E.B. Tylor, an early anthropologist, believed that the first form of religion was animism—the idea that spirits exist in humans, animals, and nature. He saw this as an early human attempt to explain dreams, death, and natural events. Over time, he thought, religion evolved from worship of many spirits to belief in one God.
Max Muller, a scholar of languages, gave a different explanation. He said religion began when people described nature poetically—calling the sun or rain “divine.” As these words repeated over generations, language mistakes turned natural forces into gods and people started worshipping natural forces. This was his “naturalistic theory.”
Tylor built his ideas through travel accounts and cultural comparisons; Muller used linguistic study. Both believed religion would fade with science. Later thinkers like Durkheim and Weber disagreed, showing that religion still unites people and guides values. Today, scholars see religion not as dying out but constantly changing and adapting to modern life.
Q5(d) What is cult? Explain the growth of cults in the contemporary world. (150 words)
A cult is a small group that follows a charismatic leader and unusual religious or spiritual ideas. Unlike large religions, a cult is new, informal, and often centered on the personality of its founder. Members usually share strong emotional bonds and deep loyalty.
Cults grow when people feel lonely or uncertain. In times of social stress, they look for belonging and meaning. The internet now allows cults to spread quickly across countries. For example, QAnon in the United States and online self-help or healing movements attract followers through social media.
In India, some cult-like groups around self-styled godmen, such as Dera Sacha Sauda, mix religion with social services, giving followers both spiritual comfort and material help. However, some cults become exploitative or violent. Modern consumer culture and digital reach make cults easy to join but hard to regulate, creating tension between religious freedom and public safety.
Q5(e) Do you think Talcott Parsons gave an adequate theory of social change? Justify your answer. (150 words)
Talcott Parsons, a functionalist sociologist, saw social change as a slow and balanced process. He said societies evolve when their parts—family, economy, or education—take on new, specialized roles. For example, family functions like teaching moved to schools, and personal authority shifted to formal offices. This process, called structural differentiation, helped society stay stable while changing.
Parsons believed every system tries to maintain equilibrium or balance. Critics argue that this makes his theory too calm and abstract. Real change, they say, often comes through conflict and power struggles, as Marx described. In many developing or post-colonial societies, change is sudden and influenced by external forces like globalization or political upheaval—something Parsons did not address.
Still, his pattern variables and system model help explain modernization and adaptation. Parsons gives one side of the picture: change through cooperation. To understand society fully, it must be paired with theories that include conflict and resistance.
Q6(a) Elucidate the main problems and challenges faced by the migrant labourers in the recent ‘Lockdown period’.
The COVID-19 lockdown of 2020 in India exposed how fragile and invisible the lives of migrant labourers really are. According to the Economic Survey (2017), India had around 100 million internal migrants, many working in construction, transport, factories, or domestic work—mostly in the informal sector without stable income or social security.
When the lockdown began, their problems multiplied overnight. Work and income disappeared as factories and markets shut down. Without contracts or benefits, most migrants were excluded from relief or wage compensation. Many lived in temporary shelters near their worksites; once these closed, thousands were left homeless. Food shortages led to hunger, forcing the government to introduce the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PM-GKAY) to provide free rations.
Images of migrant families walking hundreds of kilometres to reach home became symbols of state unpreparedness. The Shramik Special trains were launched later, but poor coordination between states delayed their travel. Migrants also faced stigma, being labeled as “virus carriers,” and were often quarantined in poor conditions.
Another major problem was the lack of documentation. Because most migrants lacked registration or portable entitlements, help could not reach them. The government responded by fast-tracking the One Nation, One Ration Card initiative.
The crisis also hurt their mental and physical health, causing deep stress, uncertainty, and family separation.
The lockdown made visible long-standing issues—rural poverty, job insecurity, and lack of urban housing and healthcare. Migrant labour is vital to India’s economy but often excluded from welfare planning. The experience showed that real reform must ensure portable social security, safe housing, legal recognition, and inclusive urban policies that treat migrants not as outsiders but as essential citizens of India’s workforce.
Q6(b) Explain how political parties and pressure groups are dialectically related to each other in terms of achieving their goals.
In a democracy, both political parties and pressure groups help citizens express their interests and influence the state. Their main difference is in how they work. Political parties try to gain power through elections, while pressure groups try to influence those already in power without directly contesting. Yet, the two are deeply connected—they depend on and shape each other continuously.
According to David Easton’s systems model, both serve as inputs into the political process. Pressure groups raise social demands, while political parties convert them into laws or policies. Gabriel Almond explained this as a difference between articulation and aggregation: pressure groups voice narrow, specific issues, and parties combine them into broader political programs. For example, the Bharatiya Kisan Union’s campaigns over minimum support prices (MSP) influenced how parties designed their agricultural promises.
This exchange strengthens democracy. Pressure groups bring local voices into the national conversation; political parties turn these into legislative action. The Anna Hazare anti-corruption movement (2011) is a clear example—it began as civic activism and later evolved into the Aam Aadmi Party, showing how protest can become organized politics.
However, their relationship is not always peaceful. As Marx noted, parties often reflect dominant class interests, while pressure groups challenge them by exposing inequality or neglect. For instance, environmental activists opposing large industrial projects frequently clash with parties promoting rapid growth.
Despite tensions, both rely on each other. Pressure groups need political allies to achieve change; parties need public mobilization to stay relevant. Their relationship is dialectical—cooperative when they share goals, competitive when they differ, but always dynamic. Together, they ensure democracy remains open, participatory, and responsive to the evolving needs of society.
Q6(c) Give your comments on the growth of religious revivalism in the present day context. (150 words)
Religious revivalism means the renewed importance of faith, rituals, and symbols in public life. In today’s world, many people turn to religion to find stability and cultural roots. Globalization, fast social change, and fear of losing identity make religion a source of belonging and pride.
In India, the rise of Hindutva politics, temple-building campaigns, and public religious festivals reflect this revival. Globally, we see similar movements: Islamic revivalism in West Asia, Evangelical Christianity in the United States, and Buddhist nationalism in Myanmar and Sri Lanka.
Revivalism can strengthen moral values and community unity, but it can also lead to exclusion and division. When religion mixes with politics, it may cause communal tension or restrict minority rights. The spread of social media has made revivalist messages travel faster, creating online echo chambers.
Thus, while revivalism can preserve heritage, it must stay balanced with secular and democratic principles.
Q7(a) Explain how the pattern of patriarchy is being altered in a family and at the workplace in the present context.
Patriarchy means a social system where men hold more power and control than women. Sociologist Sylvia Walby described it as a network of structures—family, work, culture, and politics—through which men dominate and women are kept in a weaker position. Today, these structures are changing slowly because of education, legal rights, urbanization, and rising awareness, though not equally everywhere.
In families, the old pattern of men earning and women caring is beginning to shift. More women now study, work, and marry later. In cities, dual-income families are common, where both partners share financial and decision-making roles. Many young couples reject dowry, question traditional gender roles, and support live-in or same-sex relationships, showing how ideas of family are becoming more open.
But patriarchy has not disappeared. It now appears in softer ways. Women still bear the “dual burden” and still do most of the unpaid housework and child care even when they have jobs. India’s Time Use Survey shows this clearly. Domestic violence and emotional pressure also continue, often hidden behind the surface of modern equality.
At workplaces, the picture is similar. Women have entered fields like IT, health, and administration, helped by laws such as the Maternity Benefit Act, Equal Remuneration Act, and POSH Act. Yet, many face a gender pay gap, slow promotions, and fewer leadership roles. In informal jobs, there is almost no job security. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild noted that women also do invisible emotional work, such as staying calm, polite, and supportive under stress—expectations not placed on men.
Patriarchy today is less visible but still strong. Real change needs not only good laws but also a change in mindset—sharing domestic work, respecting women’s choices, and treating equality as a normal way of life.
Q7(b) Critically examine the contribution of dependency theories in understanding the present global scenario.
Dependency theory began in the 1960s as a reaction against modernization theory, which claimed that poor countries would develop by copying the West. Thinkers like Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, and Immanuel Wallerstein disagreed. They said that poor countries are not behind in development—they are kept poor because of the way the global capitalist system works.
According to Frank, rich nations grow by taking wealth from poor nations. Poor countries are pushed to export raw materials and import finished goods, which keeps them dependent. Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory expanded this idea. He divided the world into the core (rich industrial nations), the semi-periphery, and the periphery (poor nations). The core controls technology, capital, and trade, while the periphery provides cheap labor and raw goods. Samir Amin and others called this a modern form of colonialism, hidden under trade and finance.
This pattern still exists today. The debt crisis in Sri Lanka, the IMF’s strict loan conditions, and the unequal distribution of COVID-19 vaccines all show how global rules often favor wealthy nations. Even global supply chains work this way—most of the profit stays in the Global North, though the actual production happens in the Global South. Kwame Nkrumah called this neo-colonialism, meaning political freedom without economic independence.
However, dependency theory is not perfect. It sometimes ignores internal problems such as corruption, weak governance, or innovation. The success of China and South Korea shows that smart state planning and selective global integration can bring development.
Still, dependency theory remains powerful because it reminds us that global inequality is not accidental—it is built into the system itself. In a world of debt traps, digital control, and trade imbalances, its warning that “the periphery feeds the core” remains deeply relevant.
Q7(c) Explain the growing salience of ethnicity in the contemporary world with illustrations. (150 words)
Ethnicity means shared cultural identity based on common language, ancestry, or traditions. In today’s globalized world, ethnic identity has become stronger because people fear losing their uniqueness to global culture or dominant groups or if they perceive that they’re being treated unfairly by the mainstream.
In India, ethnic assertion is seen in movements like the Gorkhaland and Bodo struggles, where communities seek more autonomy and recognition. Around the world, the Kurdish demand for nationhood and the Rohingya conflict in Myanmar show how ethnicity remains tied to politics and survival.
As class-based politics declines, people increasingly unite around ethnic or regional identity. Ethnicity gives communities a voice but can also create conflict and separation, as seen in Sri Lanka’s Tamil-Sinhalese violence or sectarian conflicts in West Asia.
Thus, ethnicity today works in two ways: it helps marginalized groups gain dignity and representation, but if misused by political leaders, it can threaten peace and social harmony in diverse societies.
Q8(a) Discuss the changing nature of kinship relations in the contemporary world.
In earlier times, kinship was seen as a fixed system based on blood ties and marriage, which decided inheritance, authority, and family duties. Early anthropologists like Lewis Henry Morgan and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown studied kinship as a stable structure that held communities together. Later, David Schneider showed that kinship is not just biological—it is shaped by culture, emotion, and meaning.
Today, modern life has changed how families are formed and maintained. Urbanization, migration, and technology have reduced the dominance of joint families, especially in India. Many families are now nuclear, with both partners working. People move to new cities for jobs, and this mobility weakens everyday contact with extended relatives. Studies like India’s Time Use Survey (2019) show that families spend less time together, but they still stay connected through WhatsApp groups, video calls, and social media.
New family patterns have emerged—single-parent households, live-in relationships, same-sex unions, and families formed through IVF or surrogacy. Legal changes such as the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, which gives daughters equal inheritance rights, and the Supreme Court’s recognition of live-in and queer relationships, have expanded the meaning of “family.”
However, the pace of change is uneven. In many rural and traditional communities, caste boundaries, arranged marriages, and honour-based restrictions remain strong. Anthony Giddens described modern intimacy as “pure relationships”—based on emotional satisfaction rather than obligation. Yet, family honor and social approval still hold influence.
Thus, kinship today is not disappearing but evolving. Families are now shaped by both choice and tradition, by law and emotion, and by the virtual and the real. Modern kinship reflects how people balance freedom and belonging in a fast-changing, connected world.
Q8(b) Describe the role of Science and Technology in enabling us to face the challenges triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic.
The COVID-19 pandemic became one of the biggest tests of how science and technology serve society. They helped the world survive the crisis—but also showed the inequalities in access, trust, and opportunity.
The most visible achievement was the rapid development of vaccines. Using new methods like mRNA technology (Pfizer and Moderna) and viral vector platforms (Covishield), scientists created vaccines in record time. India’s ICMR and Bharat Biotech produced local vaccines like Covaxin, while the CoWIN app managed vaccination for millions. This reflected what sociologist Ulrich Beck, in his idea of the “Risk Society,” described as science’s ability to both create and manage new forms of risk.
Technology also supported daily life. Offices moved online through Zoom and Teams, schools taught through digital classrooms, and hospitals used telemedicine services like e-Sanjeevani. Artificial intelligence helped track infection patterns, and genome sequencing identified new variants. Social media spread information quickly—but it also spread rumors and misinformation, showing that even knowledge can become risky if misused.
At the same time, the crisis revealed a digital divide. A UNICEF report found that 70% of Indian students lacked access to online learning. Many rural areas had poor internet and limited healthcare access. This showed that without equal access, technology can deepen inequality.
Science and technology thus acted as both shield and mirror—they protected lives but also reflected society’s gaps. The pandemic proved that progress alone is not enough; it must be inclusive, ethical, and guided by empathy. True resilience lies not just in invention but in ensuring that innovation reaches everyone, especially the most vulnerable.
Q8(c) Highlight the roles and functions of civil society in a democratic system. (150 words)
Civil society includes groups and organizations like NGOs, social movements, media, and voluntary associations that connect citizens with the state. It plays a key role in keeping democracy active and accountable.
Civil society gives ordinary people a voice. Movements such as the RTI campaign and India Against Corruption show how citizens can question power and push for transparency. NGOs also deliver help where the government is weak—for example, during COVID-19, many groups distributed food, medical aid, and awareness materials.
Civil society also supports social inclusion by giving space to marginalized groups, such as LGBTQ+ activists, tribal organizations, and women’s groups. However, it faces challenges from strict government regulations like the FCRA, internal elitism, and dependence on donors.
Despite these problems, civil society remains vital. It builds trust between people and the state, spreads awareness, and strengthens democracy by keeping governance open and participatory.
