UPSC Mains 2019 Sociology Paper - I
Section-A
Q1 Answer the following question in about 150 Words each : 10×5=50 Marks
Q1.(a) Discuss the historical antecedents of the emergence of Sociology as a discipline.
Sociology began to take shape in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries. This was a time when old ways of thinking and living were breaking down. The Enlightenment encouraged people to trust reason and observation instead of only faith or tradition. Thinkers started to study society the same way scientists studied nature.
The Industrial Revolution then changed life completely. People moved from villages to cities, factories appeared, and workers faced poor living and working conditions. These changes created new problems like poverty, crime, and class conflict.
At the same time, the French Revolution destroyed old feudal systems and spread ideas of liberty and equality, but it also caused disorder. Thinkers such as Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Émile Durkheim wanted to understand how society could regain order. Comte even created the word sociology and promoted a “scientific study of society.”
Q1.(b) Davis and Moore made it clear that social stratification is a functional necessity and also an unconscious device. Discuss.
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore said that social stratification—the way society ranks people into higher and lower groups—is not accidental. They believed it is needed for society to work smoothly.
Every community requires people to do different kinds of jobs. Some jobs, such as being a doctor or judge, require long training, special skills, and responsibility. To make sure that people take up these tough roles, society gives them greater pay, respect, and authority. These rewards act as motivation. Davis and Moore explained that this process happens without anyone planning it, like a natural balancing system.
However, other scholars such as Melvin Tumin disagreed. They said the theory ignores unfair barriers like caste, gender, and class, which prevent real equality of opportunity. Critics also said it defends existing inequalities. Even so, this theory remains a key part of the functionalist view of how societies maintain stability.
Q1.(c) What is the Marxist concept of ‘fetishism of commodities’?
Karl Marx used the term “fetishism of commodities” to describe how, under capitalism, people start valuing products as if they have power of their own. The hard work of laborers becomes invisible.
For example, when someone buys a branded pair of shoes, they admire its logo, packaging, and price. They rarely think about the factory worker who spent long hours making it for very low pay. The shoe seems valuable by itself, but in truth its worth comes from human labor. This false belief hides the exploitation that exists in production. Marx called it “fetishism” because commodities begin to look magical and independent, like idols that command respect. This process alienates workers—they no longer feel connected to what they produce.
Marx used this idea to show how capitalism shapes our thinking and hides real power relations between owners and workers.
Q1.(d) Present a sociological review on the ‘new middle class’.
The new middle class in India appeared after the economic reforms of the 1990s. It grew from new kinds of jobs in private companies, especially in IT, banking, and communication. This class lives mainly in cities, earns regular incomes, and has access to global lifestyles. Its members use digital devices, shop in malls, and often live in nuclear families. They value education, hard work, and modern living.
However, sociologist Leela Fernandes points out that many of them still keep traditional ideas about caste and gender. For example, they may support equality in words but still prefer caste-based marriages.
Politically, this class demands good governance and better services but can also be influenced by populist leaders. Their focus on urban life often leaves rural concerns unseen.
Thus, the new middle class shows both progress and contradiction—it enjoys globalization yet carries traces of older social values.
Q1.(e) Explain the probability sampling strategies with examples.
Probability sampling means choosing people for research in a fair way so that everyone in the population has a known chance of being selected. This helps the results represent the whole group accurately.
Simple Random Sampling: Every person has an equal chance. For example, a teacher puts all students’ names in a box and picks a few for a survey.
Systematic Sampling: Choosing every fixed number, such as every 10th name on a voter list.
Stratified Sampling: Dividing people into groups—like caste, gender, or region—and selecting some from each group to ensure proper representation.
Cluster Sampling: Selecting entire clusters, such as picking certain villages or schools and surveying everyone inside them.
Large national studies like the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) use these methods. They make research fair, reduce bias, and ensure the findings truly reflect society.
Q2 (a) According to Mead, “We play a key role in our own socialization.” 20 Marks
George Herbert Mead, an American sociologist, wanted to explain how people learn to live in society. He said that becoming social is not something that simply happens to us. Each person takes part in shaping who they become. This means that we are not just shaped by society; we also shape ourselves through everyday interactions.
Mead called this process socialization, and he believed it is how the self develops. The “self,” according to him, is not born ready. It grows when we communicate, imitate, and respond to others. Mead divided the self into two sides. The “I” is the creative and spontaneous part—it acts freely and sometimes breaks rules. The “Me” is the part that follows what society expects. Together, these two sides help us act and think in balance.
He described three clear stages of learning. In the preparatory stage, small children copy what adults do—like pretending to talk on the phone or cook—but they do not yet understand the meaning. In the play stage, they start to take roles such as “teacher,” “doctor,” or “parent.” By acting these parts, they begin to see themselves from another person’s view. In the game stage, children learn that many people have different roles at the same time. They start to understand the “generalized other,” meaning society’s shared rules and values.
Mead showed that socialization continues all through life. For example, a student learns to behave differently in class, at home, and with friends. A young woman in India might respect family traditions but also adapt to a modern office culture. Through reflection and experience, people build their own identities.
So, Mead teaches us that society and self are in conversation. We learn from others, but we also help decide who we are.
Q2. (b) Bring out the significance of Ethnography in social research. 20 Marks
Ethnography is a way of doing research by living among people and watching how they actually live. It began in anthropology but is now used in sociology too. The goal is to understand people from their own point of view—to see the world as they see it.
Instead of numbers or quick surveys, ethnography gives rich stories about real life. The anthropologist Clifford Geertz called this a “thick description.” It does not only tell what people do but also why they do it. For example, if a researcher studies a village festival, they would not stop at describing songs and dances. They would explain what these acts mean for the villagers—the beliefs, emotions, and community ties behind them.
Ethnography helps build grounded theory, meaning ideas that come from observation instead of starting with fixed assumptions. Researchers often spend months or years in the field, taking notes, talking to people, and reflecting on their own position. Because of this close involvement, they can see everyday life in full detail—how people eat, work, pray, argue, and dream.
It is especially useful for groups that are usually ignored in big surveys, like tribal communities, slum residents, and informal workers. Ethnography gives voice to people who are often unseen.
In India, M. N. Srinivas used this method in Rampura village, which led him to develop ideas like dominant caste and Sanskritization. Sudhir Venkatesh used ethnography in American cities to show how poor communities build informal economies. Scholars such as Amita Baviskar and Alpa Shah studied environmental conflicts and displacement the same way.
Though ethnography takes time and cannot always be generalized, it gives a real, human picture of society. It helps governments and organizations make policies that truly fit people’s needs, such as better rural health services or safer working conditions.
Q2.(c) What is ‘reserve army of labour’ ? Present the position of feminist scholars on this. (150 words)
Karl Marx used the term “reserve army of labour” to describe a large group of people who are unemployed or only partly employed. These people can be easily hired when companies need more workers and removed when business slows down. Because they are always available, employers can keep wages low and make regular workers afraid of losing their jobs. Examples include daily-wage labourers, street vendors, and seasonal farm workers who have no job security.
Feminist scholars expanded this idea by looking at how gender fits into it. They observed that women often form a big part of this reserve army. During times of high demand—such as wars or factory expansion—women are called into work, but they are often pushed back home when the economy shrinks. Thinkers like Silvia Federici and Maria Mies added that women’s unpaid domestic work also supports capitalism by producing and caring for workers without pay.
Q3 (a) Discuss the importance of interpretative understanding of social phenomena and explain its limitations. 20 Marks
Max Weber, a German sociologist, said that to truly understand society, we must look at how people think and feel when they act. He called this kind of study Verstehen, which means “understanding from inside.”
In the natural sciences, researchers study objects that have no feelings—stones, plants, or chemicals. But human beings are different. We act because of our beliefs, emotions, and goals. So, Weber said, sociologists must ask, “What does this action mean to the person doing it?”
This kind of study is called interpretative understanding. It helps us see that people are not machines. For example, if we study a wedding ceremony, it is not enough to count how many people attend. We must also understand what the rituals mean—the blessings, the gifts, the prayers, the sense of duty and joy. Such understanding gives depth and makes social research human and alive.
Interpretative sociology is useful for studying small, everyday acts—how people greet each other, pray, or behave in families. Scholars like George Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman used this method to study emotions and identity. It also helps researchers avoid judging other cultures unfairly. For example, to understand the dowry system in India, one must know how it relates to family honor and marriage customs, not only money.
But this approach also has limits. Because it depends on personal feelings and meanings, different researchers may interpret the same situation differently. It is also hard to use for big issues such as poverty, inequality, or patriarchy, which need large-scale data. Some critics say it ignores deep structures, like class or gender systems, that shape people’s actions.
Even with these limits, Weber’s idea is very important. It reminds us that behind every statistic there is a person with a story, a thought, and a purpose
Q3. (b) Are all world religions patriarchal ? Substantiate your answer with examples. 20 Marks
Many major religions show patriarchal patterns, meaning they give more power and authority to men than to women. But saying that all religions are equally patriarchal would not be correct. Each religion has different traditions, and these change over time and place.
Most organized religions were formed in male-dominated societies, so their texts and leaders often reflect that world. In Christianity, the Catholic Church allows only men to become priests, which gives men control over spiritual authority. In Islam, some conservative groups insist that women wear the hijab and avoid public roles. In Hinduism, old texts such as the Manusmriti praise women who are faithful wives and mothers. In Judaism and parts of Hindu practice, menstruating women are kept away from temples or rituals. Many religions also try to control women’s sexuality and reproduction, for example by opposing contraception or divorce.
Yet, not all religions treat women in the same way. Some tribal and indigenous religions—such as those in North-East India or Africa—honour women as priests or leaders. In Hinduism, goddesses like Durga, Kali, and Shakti represent strength and creation. These figures show respect for feminine power, though this respect does not always lead to real equality in daily life.
Change is happening too. Feminist theologians are re-reading scriptures to challenge male dominance. Some Anglican churches now have women priests, and many Muslim women lead prayers in modern, inclusive mosques. Scholar Nivedita Menon says that the answer is not to reject religion but to reclaim it—to find meanings that free women instead of controlling them.
So, while patriarchy exists in most religions, religion itself is not fixed or unchanging. It can evolve toward equality when people reinterpret its teachings with fairness and compassion.
Q3. (c) What, according to Merton, is the difference between ‘unanticipated consequences’ and ‘latent functions’ ? Give examples to elaborate. (150 words)
Robert K. Merton wanted to show that human actions can have effects that people never plan. He called one type of these effects “latent functions”—outcomes that are not intended but turn out to be useful or positive for society. Another, broader type he called “unanticipated consequences,” which means any unexpected result—good, bad, or neutral.
For example, when governments made schooling compulsory, their main goal was to teach children to read and write. A latent function of schools, however, was that they also teach discipline and teamwork, helping children adjust to social life. An unanticipated consequence could be that poor children get lower-quality education, which widens class gaps.
Merton’s idea helps sociologists look beyond official purposes. By studying both useful and harmful side effects, they can understand how social institutions truly shape society, sometimes in ways people never expect.
Q4 (a) Modernization presupposes class society; however caste, ethnicity and race are still predominant. Explain. 20 Marks
Modernization means the change from old, traditional ways of life to modern ways of living. The theory of modernization came from European thinkers during the Enlightenment period. They believed that when people became more educated, industrialized, and democratic, old divisions like caste, race, and ethnicity would slowly disappear. In their view, modern society would divide people only by class — by their job, income, and education — not by birth or ancestry.
But in real life, this idea has not come true. Old identities like caste and race have not vanished. They still shape people’s lives, though in new forms.
Take India as an example. Even in big cities, people still identify by caste. A person may work in an office or run a company, but their caste background often affects who they marry, how they are treated, or which networks they belong to. Sociologist André Béteille explained that caste and class now exist together. A rich person may also have high caste status, and sometimes, caste privilege helps people become rich.
In politics, caste remains very active. Many political parties win elections by appealing to specific caste groups. Discussions about reservations (affirmative action) show that caste continues to influence who gets education and jobs. Even on social media, people now talk openly about caste pride or discrimination — showing that caste has adjusted to modern life.
In the United States, the story is similar with race. Even though the law says all are equal, racial inequality continues. Black Americans still face lower wages, police violence, and segregated neighborhoods.
As sociologist Surinder Jodhka said, modernization often makes people more aware of their identity. Ethnic and caste groups now use modern tools — education, politics, and media — to demand respect and rights.
So modernization does not destroy old identities. It changes their shape. People now use caste, race, and ethnicity as ways to find power and belonging in the modern world.
Q4. (b) Compare and Contrast the contributions of Marx and Weber on social stratification in capitalist society. 20 Marks
Both Karl Marx and Max Weber tried to explain why societies are unequal. They studied how people are divided by money, power, and respect. But they looked at these issues in different ways.
Marx’s view was simple but strong. He said that the main cause of inequality is economic. In a capitalist system, society is divided into two classes. The bourgeoisie are the people who own factories, land, and money. The proletariat are the workers who sell their labor for wages. The rich exploit the poor by keeping most of the profit for themselves — this is what Marx called surplus value. This creates tension and struggle between the two groups. Marx believed that one day, this struggle would lead to a revolution, where workers would build an equal society. He also said that institutions like the state and religion often help the rich by making inequality look normal or “natural.”
Weber agreed that class is important but said it is not the whole story. He thought that inequality has three parts — class, status, and party.
Class means how much money or property someone has.
Status means the amount of respect or honor a person receives.
Party means political power or influence.
For example, In India, the Brahmins have high social status because of their religious role, even if they are not rich. In contrast, some businesspeople may have wealth but little respect. A political leader may have power even without money.
The biggest difference between Marx and Weber is this: Marx saw society as divided sharply between two classes locked in conflict. Weber saw society as made of many layers where people can move up or down.
Both thinkers help us understand inequality. Marx shows us the economic roots of power. Weber shows us how status and power also shape who is above and who is below. Together, their ideas give a fuller picture of how modern societies remain unequal.
Q4.(c) What, according to Irawati Karve, are the Major difference between North Indian and South Indian Kinship system? (150 words)
Irawati Karve, a leading Indian sociologist, compared family and marriage systems across India. She found that North Indian and South Indian kinship differ in their marriage rules, family terms, and descent patterns.
In North India, families follow patrilineal descent, where ancestry is traced through the father’s line. Marriage is exogamous, meaning people cannot marry within the same gotra or even the same village. For example, a man from one gotra must find a wife from a completely different lineage. Marrying cousins is not allowed. The system clearly separates relatives on the mother’s and father’s sides—such as “chacha” for father’s brother and “mama” for mother’s brother.
In South India, however, people often prefer cross-cousin marriages, such as a man marrying his mother’s brother’s daughter. Some areas, like Kerala, even have matrilineal families. The kinship terms there are classificatory, grouping several relatives under one word. Karve showed how history and environment created these regional differences.
Section-B
Q5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each : 10×5=50 Marks
Q5.(a) Differentiate between ‘Life-chances’ and ‘Life-style’ with suitable examples. 10 Marks
The sociologist Max Weber used the ideas of life-chances and life-style to explain how people’s positions in society shape their daily lives.
Life-chances mean the chances a person has to improve their quality of life. These depend on access to good education, healthcare, jobs, and social respect. For example, a Dalit child in a poor village may find it hard to get a good school or a stable job because of caste bias and lack of resources. This limits their life-chances.
Life-style means how people live and express their identity — through dress, food, leisure, and values. For instance, an urban middle-class family that wears modern clothes, eats at restaurants, and posts on social media shows a particular life-style.
Life-chances come mainly from social structure, while life-style shows social identity. Both are linked: better life-chances can improve life-style, and people sometimes imitate higher life-styles even without better chances.
Q5.(b) Discuss the issues of access and exclusion in higher education in India. 10 Marks
Access to higher education in India is marked by significant exclusions across caste, class, In India, not everyone has the same chance to study in college or university. Many young people are left out because of who they are or where they live.
For example, a Dalit or tribal student from a small village may go to a school where there are too few teachers, no science lab, and no internet. When this student finishes school, they find that good colleges are far away and expensive. Even if they reach a city, they may face prejudice or struggle to pay for food and rent. These barriers reduce their chance to continue higher studies.
Girls face other problems. In many rural families, parents worry about safety or feel girls should stay home, so even talented girls stop studying after school.
The digital divide became clearer during the pandemic — many students had smartphones but no steady network, so they missed online classes.
The government runs schemes like RUSA, NEP 2020, and scholarships, but results are uneven. To make higher education truly open to all, India needs affordable hostels, better teachers, and classrooms where students of every background feel respected.
Q5.(c) What is civil society ? Present a note on civil society engagement with science and technology policy in India. 10 Marks
Civil society means the part of public life that is not controlled by the government or by private business. It includes people’s groups, voluntary organizations, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that work together for the common good.
Thinkers have described civil society in different ways. Alexis de Tocqueville said that it keeps democracy alive because citizens learn to act together. Antonio Gramsci saw it as a space where ideas and beliefs are debated and where people can challenge power. Jürgen Habermas called it the “public sphere,” where people discuss issues with reason and fairness.
In India, civil society has played an active role in science and technology. The People’s Science Movement began in the 1970s to spread scientific thinking among ordinary people, just as Jawaharlal Nehru had imagined a modern, rational India. NGOs such as PRS Legislative Research help citizens understand laws and technology in simple ways so that public debates are informed.
Civil society has also raised questions about genetically modified crops, Aadhaar data privacy, Pegasus spyware, and net neutrality, reminding the state that science must serve people, not just markets or power.
Although laws like the FCRA Act make it harder for NGOs to work freely, civil society continues to play a vital role. It acts as a bridge between science, policy, and the everyday lives of citizens, helping ensure that progress remains ethical and inclusive.
Q5.(d) Critique A.G. Frank’s ‘development of underdevelopment’. 10 Marks
The economist A.G. Frank tried to explain why some countries stayed poor even after the end of colonial rule. He said that poverty in these nations was not a natural stage before development but the result of being tied to rich countries through an unfair global system. This idea is called the “development of underdevelopment.”
According to Frank, during colonial times, the colonies sent raw materials like cotton, coffee, or minerals to Europe and received finished goods in return. This unequal exchange made rich nations richer and kept poor nations dependent. Even after independence, this pattern continued through trade, loans, and multinational companies.
However, the theory has limits. It focuses too much on outside forces and ignores local problems like corruption or weak governance. It also assumes all poor countries are alike, but examples like South Korea and Singapore show that countries can grow rapidly through planning and education.
Frank also suggested that poor nations should “delink” from global trade, but in today’s world, isolation is unrealistic.
Even with these flaws, his theory remains valuable because it helps us see how global capitalism still creates unequal relationships between rich and poor countries.
Q5.(e) How well do you think Tonnies, Durkheim, Weber and Marx predicted the character of Modern society ? Critique. 10 Marks
Each of these thinkers tried to understand how society was changing during the rise of modern industrial life.
Ferdinand Tönnies spoke about the movement from Gemeinschaft (community) to Gesellschaft (association). In traditional villages, people knew each other closely and shared common values. In modern cities, relations became formal and based on self-interest.
Émile Durkheim said modern society depends on organic solidarity, where people are connected through their different roles — like workers, teachers, and doctors — each depending on the other.
Max Weber described modern life as being ruled by rationalization and bureaucracy. He warned that people could feel trapped in an “iron cage” of rules and systems.
Karl Marx saw capitalism as the heart of modern society. He believed it creates inequality, class struggle, and alienation among workers.
Their ideas were powerful, but each had limits. Tönnies and Durkheim focused too much on social order and not enough on individual freedom. Marx expected a worker’s revolution, but welfare states and middle classes in rich countries reduced that possibility. Weber’s bureaucratic model still fits many offices today but cannot explain the creativity and flexibility of digital economies.
Although these thinkers could not foresee everything — like today’s consumer culture, identity politics, or environmental crises — their ideas still help us understand how modern institutions shape our lives and where they fail to meet human needs.
Q6(a) Why is gender dimension of social stratification ? How does gender intersect other dimensions of inequality based on caste, class, race and ethnicity ? 20 Marks
Gender is one of the main ways through which society divides people and gives them unequal power. It decides who has more chances, more freedom, and more respect. While sex is about biology, gender is about what society teaches men and women to be.
The sociologist Sylvia Walby says patriarchy works through six systems — the home, paid work, the state, culture, male violence, and sexuality. For example, many women still cook, clean, and care for children after working full-time jobs, while men’s work is valued more.
Pierre Bourdieu explains this through symbolic violence that unfair ideas are made to feel normal for instance, A girl told that her brother’s schooling matters more may accept that as “natural.”
Kimberlé Crenshaw’s idea of intersectionality shows how gender joins with other inequalities. A Dalit woman in India faces triple barriers — as a woman, as Dalit, and as poor. A domestic worker may face gender bias and class exploitation together. In the West, Black or immigrant women may face both sexism and racism.
Even religion can add another layer — for example, some customs that limit women’s movement or clothing.
Thus, gender is never separate. It is related caste, class, race, and religion. Understanding these links helps design fairer policies — like Ujjwala Yojana, which gave clean cooking gas to rural women, easing both gender and class burdens. True equality needs us to see how these forms of injustice overlap in daily life.
Q6.(b) What are the theoretical models of societal power ? Which one of them is most applicable in advanced industrial societies ? 20 Marks
Power means the ability to make others act in certain ways — to control decisions, ideas, or behavior. Sociologists have described power in different ways.
The Elitist model, by Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, and C. Wright Mills, says power sits with a small group — the “elite.” In modern nations, they are the heads of big companies, the military, and the government. Mills, in The Power Elite, showed how these three groups in the United States work together and shape policies that serve their interests.
The Pluralist model, explained by Robert Dahl, believes power is shared. Different groups — workers, businesspeople, activists — compete and bargain. Democracy, in this view, prevents any single group from ruling alone.
The Marxist model sees power in terms of class. Karl Marx said the capitalist class controls both the economy and the ideas that justify inequality. Louis Althusser added that schools, media, and religion act as Ideological State Apparatuses, teaching obedience to the masses.
Finally, Michel Foucault gave a new idea: power is not held only by a few; it flows everywhere. It works through everyday systems — schools, hospitals, even social norms — shaping what people see as “normal.” For instance, today, online algorithms decide what news we read, influencing thought without force.
In advanced industrial societies, Foucault’s model fits best. Power now hides in data, surveillance cameras, and social media — people adjust their behavior without being ordered to. Still, Mills’ elite model also remains true, since wealthy corporations and political leaders often act together.
So, modern societies need both views: Foucault helps us see the quiet, invisible power around us, and Mills reminds us who still holds the biggest levers of control.
Q6. (c) What is affirmative action ? Substantiate theoretical positions on affirmative actions with example. 10 Marks (150 words)
Affirmative action means special steps taken to help groups that have suffered long-term discrimination gain fair access to education, jobs, and public life. It is not charity; it is a way to correct deep and historic inequalities.
Several thinkers have offered ideas that support affirmative action.
John Rawls, in his Theory of Justice, said that social and economic differences are fair only if they benefit the most disadvantaged. So, giving opportunities to weaker groups makes society more just.
Max Weber spoke of how social status and group exclusion shape life chances. Affirmative action helps open these closed doors, giving people from lower-status groups a chance to move upward.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar argued that India’s caste-based inequalities were so deep that only reservations could provide compensatory justice. This idea became part of India’s Constitution.
Examples include reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs in government jobs and education, the EWS quota, and 33% reservation for women in local bodies under the 73rd Amendment. These policies have opened doors that were closed for centuries.
Q7(a) What is ‘informal labour’ ? Discuss the need for and challenges in regulating informal labour in the post-industrial society. 20 Marks
Informal labour means all kinds of work that are not protected by law or written agreement. People in this sector have no fixed salary, health cover, or pension. They depend on daily income and can lose their jobs at any time. The anthropologist Keith Hart first used this term in 1973 after studying workers in Ghana who earned their living outside official regulation.
In India, most working people belong to this world — street vendors, domestic helpers, construction workers, rickshaw pullers, or gig-economy drivers for delivery apps. Their jobs are flexible but very insecure.
Regulating informal labour is important because it is a matter of justice. During the COVID-19 lockdown, millions of migrant workers walked home for hundreds of kilometres when work stopped overnight. They had no savings, contracts, or help. Women form a large part of this workforce, often sewing clothes at home or doing care work that society rarely counts as “real” employment.
Regulation would ensure fair wages, safety, and basic welfare such as maternity leave or health insurance. Yet it faces many obstacles. There is often no clear “employer,” making registration difficult. Business owners resist rules that raise their costs, and the state has too few inspectors to monitor workplaces. In app-based jobs, workers are called “partners,” so companies avoid responsibility.
Recent steps like the Code on Social Security (2020) and the e-Shram portal try to register workers and link them with welfare schemes. But for real change, these efforts must reach villages, cities, and women working at home. Protecting informal workers is not just about is about giving dignity and stability to the people who keep the economy running every day.
Q7.(b) Feminist scholars argue that ‘New media’ is masculine and hence reinforces structural hierarchies rather than reconfiguring them. Comment. 20 Marks
Feminist thinkers say that even though new media — social platforms, digital news, and online videos — promises equality, it often repeats the old gender imbalance of the real world. The internet looks open to all, but power inside it still wears a masculine face.
The design and control of technology show this clearly. Most major tech companies — Meta, X (formerly Twitter), or Google — are run mainly by men. The software and algorithms are written by teams that rarely include women, so their cultural bias becomes part of the code. For instance, search results often show men as leaders and women as assistants.
Online behaviour also reflects inequality. Women journalists, Dalit or queer activists, and students who speak out face severe trolling and abuse. The goal is to silence them — just as women are often silenced in physical public spaces. Scholar Deepa Narayan calls this the “intimate enemy,” where women themselves internalize these limits and begin to self-censor.
Women’s digital work is also undervalued. Many moderate content or do gig tasks for very little pay, while men dominate visible, high-paid creative roles. Campaigns such as #MeToo or Pinjra Tod show that new media can challenge patriarchy, but the backlash they face proves how deeply old hierarchies survive. Dalit and queer feminists often remain on the margins even within digital feminism, showing how caste and class continue online.
Thus, new media is not automatically liberating. It is a contested space — one that can either reproduce inequality or question it.
Q7.(c) Discuss the concept of circulation of elite. 10 Marks (150 words)
The Italian thinker Vilfredo Pareto believed that in every society, a small group of people — called the elite — always holds the most power. However, these elites do not stay the same forever. Over time, one group of elites is slowly replaced by another. This ongoing process is what he called the “circulation of elites.”
Pareto said there are two main types of elites. The “Lions” are strong, traditional, and use authority and force to rule. The “Foxes” are clever, flexible, and use persuasion or manipulation. When one type dominates too long — for example, when Lions become too rigid or Foxes become too dishonest — the system weakens. Then a new group of elites rises and takes over.
In India, this idea can be seen after independence. At first, upper-caste leaders dominated politics and bureaucracy. But later, through Mandal politics, leaders from Other Backward Classes gained power. More recently, Dalit and tribal leaders have entered Parliament and civil services, showing a new phase of elite change.
Critics say that even though the faces of the elite change, power still stays within small circles. Yet, Pareto’s idea helps us understand how leadership in society keeps shifting instead of staying fixed.
Q8(a) In the light of judicial intervention on ‘Live-in relationships’, discuss the future of marriage and family in India. 20 Marks
In India, courts have slowly begun to recognize live-in relationships — when two adults choose to live together without marrying. This change shows how ideas about love, family, and personal freedom are shifting in modern India.
The Supreme Court and several High Courts have said that adults have the right to live together under Article 21 of the Constitution, which protects the right to life and personal liberty. The Domestic Violence Act, 2005, also gives women in live-in relationships legal protection against abuse. Together, these rulings suggest that Indian law now sees companionship as a matter of individual choice, not only social approval.
This change affects the idea of marriage, which has long been tied to religion, caste, and family honor. Sociologist Anthony Giddens describes a new kind of union called the “pure relationship” — one based on emotional satisfaction and equality rather than duty. Similarly, Ulrich Beck’s idea of individualization explains how people, especially in cities, now value personal happiness over traditional rules.
For example, many urban couples choose to live together before marriage to test compatibility or avoid family pressure. Yet in rural or conservative areas, such couples may face severe backlash or even violence from their families. Courts, too, sometimes differ — protecting adults in one case, while refusing support in another, especially when issues like age or adultery arise.
The Indian family is also changing. The joint family has become mostly nuclear, and now we see new forms — single-parent families, same-sex couples, and partners without children. This brings freedom but also new questions about inheritance, child custody, and elder care.
In the coming years, marriage will remain strong, but live-in relationships will stand beside it — showing that India’s social fabric is learning to hold both tradition and change together.
Q8.(b) How, according to Merton, are deviant subcultures generated ? 20 Marks
Sociologist Robert K. Merton tried to explain why some people break rules or form groups that challenge society. His strain theory says that deviance happens when there is a gap between what people are told to achieve and the chances they actually have to achieve it.
For example, society praises success — owning a house, earning well, and gaining respect — but not everyone has equal access to good schools, fair jobs, or connections. When people cannot reach these goals by fair means, they feel strain, or pressure. Merton said people respond in five ways:
Conformists follow both rules and goals.
Innovators accept the goals but use illegal means, like theft or fraud.
Ritualists follow rules without caring about success.
Retreatists give up entirely, such as addicts or drifters.
Rebels create new goals and rules, like revolutionaries.
Deviant subcultures — groups with their own rules — usually grow from the second and fourth responses. In poor urban areas, for instance, youth who cannot find jobs or education may join gangs that promise money, identity, and belonging. Within these groups, bravery and loyalty replace school success as measures of worth.
Albert Cohen added that working-class boys who fail in school form delinquent groups to escape status frustration. Cloward and Ohlin later said that access to “illegitimate opportunities” shapes what kind of subculture forms — whether criminal, violent, or retreatist.
In India, economic hardship and caste exclusion can create similar patterns. Some young people in slums or backward regions turn to crime or extremist groups seeking respect denied elsewhere. Merton’s theory reminds us that deviance is not always evil — sometimes it is society’s failure to offer fair chances that drives people to find their own path.
Q8. (c) How is terrorism a new form of asymmetrical warfare ? What are some of the challenges in trying to win the war on terrorism ? (150 words). 10 Marks
Terrorism is called a form of asymmetrical warfare because it involves an uneven fight. On one side are non-state groups with limited men and weapons, and on the other side are powerful nation-states with large armies and technology. The weaker side uses surprise and fear instead of open battles.
For example, terrorist organizations like ISIS or Al-Qaeda carry out sudden attacks on crowded markets, metros, or government buildings. Their goal is not just to kill people but to spread fear and force governments to react. A single bomb or online threat can create panic in a whole city — that is the power of asymmetry.
The main challenges in fighting terrorism are complex. The roots of terrorism often lie in anger over injustice or poverty, so military force alone cannot solve it. Security laws and surveillance can protect people, but they may also harm civil freedoms. Cross-border networks and online radicalization make detection difficult, as messages spread secretly through encrypted apps.
Winning against terrorism needs more than weapons — it needs education, fair governance, and programs that help young people find meaning without violence. Only by combining security with understanding can societies hope to end this kind of war.
